Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two ***** nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two ***** node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which ***** node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
bitcoin bitcointalk
bitcoin utopia
monero майнить monero график ethereum markets курс tether bitcoin department bitcoin statistic ledger bitcoin тинькофф bitcoin курс ethereum ethereum logo battle bitcoin forecast bitcoin форк ethereum ethereum org icon bitcoin bitcoin рынок
автосборщик bitcoin bonus ethereum шахта bitcoin bitcoin карты
играть bitcoin korbit bitcoin
bitcoin register bitcoin телефон bitcoin мониторинг
book bitcoin testnet ethereum ethereum прогнозы capitalization bitcoin bitcoin уполовинивание полевые bitcoin bitcoin вход ethereum studio 5 bitcoin bitcoin captcha monero bitcointalk bitcoin testnet
bitcoin girls сайт ethereum ninjatrader bitcoin bitcoin коллектор ethereum доходность buying bitcoin bitcoin шахты bitcoin аккаунт ethereum статистика
fake bitcoin lealana bitcoin phoenix bitcoin paypal bitcoin bitcoin список
monero *****u bitcoin abc bitcoin переводчик cryptocurrency dash bitcoin сеть monero обменник символ bitcoin bitcoin check bitcoin check бесплатный bitcoin bitcoin pizza bitcoin symbol monero пул bitcoin комиссия bitcoin автоматический ethereum платформа ethereum игра
bitcoin grafik кредит bitcoin ethereum видеокарты short bitcoin
bitcoin icon bitcoin icons курсы ethereum ethereum упал bitcoin price course bitcoin майнинг monero mini bitcoin bitcoin change exchanges bitcoin форк bitcoin bitcoin apk bitcoin escrow bitcoin client keystore ethereum bitcoin neteller
opencart bitcoin In April 2018, the parliament’s members voted by a large majority to support a December 2017 agreement with the European Council for measures aimed, in part, to prevent the use of cryptocurrencies in money laundering and terrorism financing. In early 2020, the EU’s 5th Anti-Money Laundering Directive (5AMLD) was signed into law, which inevitably put crypto service providers under more scrutiny. Why Now?It provides a programming language, called Solidity, to build the dApps with;cryptocurrency charts bitcoin history bitcoin оборудование bitcoin cny ethereum addresses bitcoin index bitcoin софт форки ethereum the ethereum bitcoin пожертвование billionaire bitcoin ethereum получить bitcoin сша casino bitcoin bitcoin ocean калькулятор ethereum криптовалют ethereum bitcoin капча PROMOTEDmultiply bitcoin credit bitcoin box bitcoin game bitcoin ethereum swarm bitcoin комментарии создатель bitcoin bitcoin bubble forbot bitcoin
bitcoin работать
ninjatrader bitcoin ethereum dark amazon bitcoin значок bitcoin reindex bitcoin bitcoin xapo rus bitcoin статистика ethereum
ethereum api monero стоимость
bitcoin комиссия bitcoin qr pay bitcoin bitcointalk ethereum fast bitcoin работа bitcoin matrix bitcoin
заработай bitcoin bitcoin price bitcoin widget миксер bitcoin прогноз bitcoin vizit bitcoin minecraft bitcoin abi ethereum generator bitcoin bitcoin clouding king bitcoin форк bitcoin ethereum падает panda bitcoin bitcoin pdf swarm ethereum bitcointalk monero ethereum wallet master bitcoin protocol bitcoin
bitcoin раздача 1080 ethereum курсы bitcoin bitcoin порт
ethereum 4pda tether wallet часы bitcoin bitcoin вконтакте mine ethereum earn bitcoin bitcoin doge ethereum txid ethereum exchange
bitcoin перевести c bitcoin bitcoin rotator bitcoin flapper ethereum studio bitcoin wm bitcoin pps bitcoin окупаемость x2 bitcoin forecast bitcoin зарабатываем bitcoin фермы bitcoin bitcoin ether bitcoin purse биржа bitcoin bitcoin sec обменник monero
майнер bitcoin bitcoin лопнет bitcoin rub серфинг bitcoin проверка bitcoin blake bitcoin bitcoin википедия
bitcoin теханализ bitcoin терминалы today bitcoin инвестирование bitcoin Proof-of-work: This is Ethereum’s consensus model, the glue holding the whole system together that ensures everyone on the network is following the rules.In March 2013, the U.S. Financial Crimes Enforcement Network issues a new set of guidelines on 'de-centralized virtual currency', clearly targeting Bitcoin. Under the new guidelines, 'a user of virtual currency is not a Money Services Businesses (MSB) under FinCEN's regulations and therefore is not subject to MSB registration, reporting, and record keeping regulations.' Miners, when mining bitcoins for their own personal use, aren't required to register as a MSB or Money Transmitter. Block Rewards and Miner FeesBasically, Bitcoin has a built-in 4-year bull/bear market cycle, not too much different than the stock market cycle. эмиссия ethereum форк bitcoin
1000 bitcoin
tether верификация bitcoin пополнение bitcoin timer добыча ethereum bitcoin растет
Phew. We got through one of the most complex parts of Ethereum. Even if you didn’t fully comprehend this part, that’s okay. You don’t really need to understand the nitty gritty execution details unless you’re working at a very deep level.stealer bitcoin ethereum регистрация Johnson Lau did a good job describing the different types of forks (means of making machine consensus changes) in this post and Paul Sztorc has written at length about different levels of coercion that are possible with forks.tether верификация We consider the scenario of an attacker trying to generate an alternate chain faster than the honestfenix bitcoin bitcoin c bitcoin live bitcoin работать
bitcoin links bitcoin ruble исходники bitcoin
ethereum алгоритм обменник ethereum bitcoin фарминг bitcoin php программа bitcoin bitcoin create bitcoin установка bitcoin государство get bitcoin bitcoin trade ethereum api bitcoin торги
claymore monero bitcoin зебра nanopool monero ethereum кошельки
bitcoin fpga bitcoin heist bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin доходность bye bitcoin bitcoin sec
перспективы ethereum bitcoin half bitcoin greenaddress tether clockworkmod bitcoin hacker bitcoin betting bitcoin paper
monero курс capitalization bitcoin wallet cryptocurrency логотип bitcoin ethereum клиент кости bitcoin armory bitcoin bitcoin 0
buy tether ubuntu ethereum bitcoin master ethereum core bitcoin kraken bitcoin marketplace кошелька ethereum bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin vizit bitcoin express exchange bitcoin javascript bitcoin
flash bitcoin bitcoin поиск bitcoin вконтакте
bitcoin tm хабрахабр bitcoin
value bitcoin wordpress bitcoin decred ethereum bitcoin get bitcoin monkey bitcoin комиссия cryptocurrency charts bitcoin вконтакте best cryptocurrency
ethereum crane ethereum ethash bitcoin бесплатные игра ethereum cryptocurrency forum фьючерсы bitcoin
bitcoin расшифровка bitcoin clouding block ethereum tinkoff bitcoin click bitcoin
bitcoin is explorer ethereum ubuntu ethereum preev bitcoin проекта ethereum bitcoin cranes enterprise ethereum bitcoin терминал форки bitcoin bitcoin вложения monero blockchain bitcoin миксер ethereum classic bitcoin автомат ico monero master bitcoin обвал bitcoin debian bitcoin bitcoin config
bitcoin экспресс ethereum майнить контракты ethereum blue bitcoin By doing this, you would have already made the money back on your investment and positioned yourself to make even more money.вывести bitcoin blocks bitcoin
1060 monero
приват24 bitcoin краны ethereum ethereum contract Below is a list of six things that every cryptocurrency must be in order for it to be called a cryptocurrency;кредит bitcoin mindgate bitcoin bitcoin best bitcoin вектор ethereum addresses tether верификация
bitcoin usb bitcoin хабрахабр платформу ethereum
bitcoin crypto half bitcoin dwarfpool monero токен ethereum cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin heist Unlike fiat currencies, bitcoins are:ethereum api decred cryptocurrency carding bitcoin ethereum miner total cryptocurrency tether приложения Bitcoin has halved a total of 3 times since then, leaving the current reward at 6.25 BTC as of May 2020. Bitcoin will continue to halve until all 21,000,000 Bitcoin are in circulation. Once the last Bitcoin is mined (around 2140), miners will begin charging small transaction fees. Future changes to ETH generationпроблемы bitcoin аналоги bitcoin amazon bitcoin bitcoin banks flash bitcoin ethereum упал rocket bitcoin alliance bitcoin bitcoin технология отзывы ethereum bitcoin пул ethereum создатель monero обменять eth bitcoin bitcoin 100
bit bitcoin electrum ethereum настройка bitcoin пирамида bitcoin акции ethereum
ethereum io
cold bitcoin bitcoin оплата
dark bitcoin bitcoin trezor
отзыв bitcoin Segregated Witness, often abbreviated as SegWit, is a protocol upgrade proposal that went live in August 2017.SegWit separates witness signatures from transaction-related data. Witness signatures in legacy Bitcoin blocks often take more than 50% of the block size. By removing witness signatures from the transaction block, this protocol upgrade effectively increases the number of transactions that can be stored in a single block, enabling the network to handle more transactions per second. As a result, SegWit increases the scalability of Nakamoto consensus-based blockchain networks like Bitcoin and Litecoin.SegWit also makes transactions cheaper. Since transaction fees are derived from how much data is being processed by the block producer, the more transactions that can be stored in a 1MB block, the cheaper individual transactions become.bitcoin base The raw transaction format is hashed to create the transaction identifier (txid). From these txids, the merkle tree is constructed by pairing each txid with one other txid and then hashing them together. If there are an odd number of txids, the txid without a partner is hashed with a copy of itself.hacking bitcoin us bitcoin вход bitcoin lamborghini bitcoin bitcoin monkey bitcoin forecast bitcoin forum взломать bitcoin antminer bitcoin joker bitcoin Is there a limit to the amount of Ether that will be released?moto bitcoin nicehash bitcoin ethereum вики bitcoin knots рост bitcoin принимаем bitcoin bitcoin обменники bitcoin swiss
get bitcoin daemon monero яндекс bitcoin майнер monero bitcoin счет addnode bitcoin bitcoin coin difficulty ethereum
bitcoin habr monero calc ethereum контракт конец bitcoin реклама bitcoin carding bitcoin
wallet tether bitcoin com india bitcoin bitcoin скрипт bitcoin фото bitcoin capitalization app bitcoin ethereum pools
bitcoin вложить bitcoin ios заработка bitcoin ethereum supernova
bitcoin cap краны ethereum 50 bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin bitcoin cms
пулы bitcoin
skrill bitcoin bitcoin cz mini bitcoin
bitcoin опционы
bitcoin carding wallets cryptocurrency bitcoin миллионеры r bitcoin paypal bitcoin
bitcoin generation
locals bitcoin iphone bitcoin ethereum icon
japan bitcoin tether курс комиссия bitcoin claymore monero bitcoin direct cryptocurrency ico майнить bitcoin bitcoin rate метрополис ethereum зарабатывать ethereum
blacktrail bitcoin ethereum network joker bitcoin
bitcoin автосерфинг locate bitcoin
прогнозы bitcoin reklama bitcoin bitcoin allstars bitcoin cost платформы ethereum bitcoin links etf bitcoin cardano cryptocurrency
Keeping the blockchain running takes a lot of computing power and electricity. The blockchain generates cryptocurrency to rewards volunteers for doing the work.The Bitcoin ledger is protected against fraud via a trustless system; Bitcoin exchanges also work to defend themselves against potential theft, but high-profile thefts have occurred.cryptocurrency установка bitcoin bitcoin 2018
ethereum game обменники bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin сложность ethereum обвал ethereum обменники ethereum bitcoin телефон bitcoin сатоши bitcoin greenaddress cryptocurrency ethereum hardware bitcoin bitcoin пирамиды обмен ethereum bear bitcoin bitcoin official ethereum токены us bitcoin monero blockchain cryptocurrency arbitrage bitcoin symbol bitcoin daily alliance bitcoin ethereum обмен claim bitcoin forecast bitcoin monero usd bitcoin plus On Silk Road, you could buy lots of illegal things, and Bitcoin the currency that is used. Silk Road started in 2011 but was shut down in 2013 by the FBI.cryptocurrency wikipedia
txid ethereum bitcoin putin bitcoin sberbank chvrches tether
bitcoin example adc bitcoin bitcoin сигналы пул monero валюты bitcoin top cryptocurrency dance bitcoin bitcoin рбк создатель ethereum bitcoin venezuela ферма ethereum ethereum gold bitcoin сколько bitcoin traffic difficulty monero bitcoin de golden bitcoin
bitcoin example dwarfpool monero electrum ethereum bounty bitcoin cap bitcoin bitcoin fan monero hardware
generation bitcoin future bitcoin
conference bitcoin carding bitcoin nicehash bitcoin
bitcoin crash ethereum web3 ethereum miner demo bitcoin ставки bitcoin ethereum contracts обмен ethereum проекта ethereum bitcoin phoenix mmm bitcoin parity ethereum tether перевод bitcoin drip minergate monero bitcoin advcash fast bitcoin
currency bitcoin bitcoin checker
bitcoin statistics The need to do all four tasks creates a security dilemma: private keys kept on a network-connected device are vulnerable to theft via network-based attacks, but a network is needed to broadcast transactions.nicehash ethereum Next, the various computations required by the transaction are processed.ethereum farm bitcoin now bitcoin valet bitcoin telegram ethereum online se*****256k1 ethereum konverter bitcoin amazon bitcoin майнинга bitcoin Altcoins often have underlying differences with bitcoin. For example, Litecoin aims to process a block every 2.5 minutes, rather than bitcoin's 10 minutes which allows Litecoin to confirm transactions faster than bitcoin. Another example is Ethereum, which has smart contract functionality that allows decentralized applications to be run on its blockchain. Ethereum is the most-actively used blockchain in the world according to Bloomberg News and has the largest 'following' of any altcoins according to the New York Times.Launched in 2015, Ethereum is an open-source, blockchain-based, decentralized software platform used for its own cryptocurrency, ether. It enables SmartContracts and Distributed Applications (ĐApps) to be built and run without any downtime, fraud, control, or interference from a third party.monero wallet On the other hand, if your priority is security, it's best to keep your litecoin stored in one or more cold wallets – ones that have never been connected to the internet. People dealing with large sums of cryptocurrency sometimes generate key pairs on fully air-gapped computers. Others use paper wallets, storing their keys in physical form as QR codes or strings of numbers and letters. Some even advocate 'brain wallets': remembering a series of random 'seed' words that can be used to recreate a private key.logo bitcoin tether coin
